Sony Corporation and Its SWOT and PESTLE Analyses

Introduction Sony Corporation is an organisation that primarily deals in the manufacture and distribution of electronic appliances. The corporation is the parent organisation of Sony Group, which was founded in 1946; the corporation manages all the business activities of the entire group.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sony Corporation and Its SWOT and PESTLE Analyses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, the corporation designs, plans, strategizes and manages the manufacture of Sony electronics (Flugge 2008, p. 4). This paper discusses the major achievements of Sony Corporation and presents SWOT and PESTLE analyses of the company. Major Achievements of Sony Corporation Sony was the first company to produce the first portable music player in the globe. The company invented the portable music device, the Walkman, in 1979. The 1979 invention of the music device and lightweight headphones brought a signifi cant change to the entertainment industry as people were able to listen freely to their favourite songs wherever they were. This invention has made and continues to make the advertisements of Sony audio and video players much easier (Flugge 2008, p. 5). Sony also manufactures digital cameras; it was the first company to produce point and shoot models, which were both turning points in the field of photography. Sony digital cameras use the single-lens reflex technology, which makes it easy to point and shoot as well as to produce clear pictures (Daft 2010, p. 177). Sony was among the first companies to invent televisions and computers that use video audio integrated operations (VAIO). This kind of technology allows TVs and computers to show images that are of high quality. Sony Corporation applies the technique in the production of most of its electronics, for example front projectors. The technology has also seen other rival companies recognise Sony’s products and try to ente r into mutual agreements with it (Gaspar 2006, p. 188). A SWOT Analysis of Sony Corporation Strengths Sony Corporation has a number of strongholds that assist it to prosper in the electronics’ business. Firstly, Sony owns quality music and pictures, which can help it to promote most of its electronic products to consumers. Secondly, the company has built a name through its consistent and good performance. One of the 2011 studies, which ranked Sony as the most valued brand in Asia, has also assisted the company to prosper. Lastly, Sony has an efficient team that consists of innovative and technological experts who ensure that the company’s products are of high quality; this helps the company to stay ahead of its competitors (Chang 2011, p. 7).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Weaknesses The main weakness of Sony is as a result of the company’s attempts to venture in a wide range of products; this compromises the aspect of specialisation within the company. The move to venture into several lines of business negatively affects the company’s brand as the consumers are unable to associate it with any of its many products. The high cost of doing business in the electronics’ industry is also another weakness that the company faces at the moment. The high costs in the industry affect how the company sets prices for its products (Henry 2008, p. 117). Opportunities Sony has a great opportunity to expand its businesses through the joint venture it has with Ericson. The joint venture gives Sony a chance to exploit the tablet market and the smart-phones’ business. The company also has a chance to expand its operations globally through its music and movie business. The company can easily use the music and movie business to develop and support its products (Hill Jones 2013, p. 502). Threats The main threat that Sony faces is competition from companies that deal in similar electronic products. The main competitors of Sony are LG and Samsung, which offer their products at relatively lower prices. The online network hackers, who hack into Sony’s site and leak the customers’ information to unauthorised individuals, are also another threat to the company (Flugge 2008, p. 4). PESTEL Analysis of Sony Corporation Political Factors Sony is an international company and its businesses in a particular country are affected by government policies. Such policies mainly determine how the government controls business in the country. For instance, Sony has not been doing well in countries such as Syria due to the poor government policies, which put unfavourable restrictions to international companies (Saleem 2010, p. 21). Economic Factors The factors that are considered as economic and which influence the business of Sony Corporation in most countries include economic growth, exchange rates, and variable ta x policies. The company has done very well in countries such as Japan and USA where exchange and interest rates are favourable (Saleem 2010, p. 23). Social Factors Sony is also affected by the changes in social trends that occur in the countries where it operates. Such changes greatly influence the demand of Sony’s products; for instance, the company does well in the United Kingdom since the lifestyles of citizens in this country are greatly influenced by fashion and stylish preferences (Karami 2007, p. 174). Technological Factors Sony depends on technological advances to innovate its products; the company has been able to manufacture most of its products as a result of the technological know-how and innovative ability of its engineers. For instance, Sony was the first company to produce a portable music player owing to the advanced technology of its experts (Karami 2007, p. 174).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sony Corporation and Its SWOT and PESTLE Analyses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Environmental Factors Weather and climatic conditions are also other factors that affect the operations of Sony in most countries. They affect activities such as tourism, insurance and farming, which in turn affect the demand for Sony’s products. For instance, Sony cameras have a high demand during winter in Syria as a result of the high number of tourists that visit the country (Bowhill 2008, p. 331). Legal Factors The operations of Sony are also influenced greatly by the laws in the countries it carries out its business activities. Every country sets its own legal restraints for which any company willing to do business in it must adhere to. For instance, in the UK, Sony must adhere to the age discrimination law that was passed recently (Havaldar 2005, p. 273). Conclusion Sony Corporation is an organisation that primarily deals in the manufacture of electronic appliances and is positio n two globally among the electronics manufacturing companies. The company has a team of experts, who are innovative and highly knowledgeable. The company’s prosperity mainly depends on the services of these experts. The operations of Sony are affected by environmental, social, political, and legal factors among others. Recommendation The management of Sony Corporation should consider specialising in only one line of products. The company should withdraw from producing the other products it deals in and stick to electronic appliances. This may enable the company to reap the full benefits of specialisation and labour division. This move may also make it easy for the company to achieve its main goal, which is to dominate the electronics’ manufacturing industry. References Bowhill, B 2008, Business planning and control: integrating accounting, strategy, and people, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. Chang, S 2011, Sony vs. Samsung: the inside story of the electronic giant’s battle for global supremacy, John Wiley Sons, Hoboken, NJ. Daft, R 2010, Organisation theory and design, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason, OH.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Flugge, J 2008, Sony-a Japanese company going global standard 2002, GRIN Verlag, Norderstedt. Gaspar, JE 2006, Introduction to business, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, NY. Havaldar, KK 2005, Industrial marketing: text and cases, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. Henry, A 2008, Understanding strategic management, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hill, CWL Jones, GR 2013, Strategic management theory, Cengage Learning, Mason, OH. Karami, A 2007, Strategy formulation in entrepreneurial firms, Ashgate, Aldershot. Saleem, S 2010, Business environment, Pearson, New Delhi. This essay on Sony Corporation and Its SWOT and PESTLE Analyses was written and submitted by user Ezra Burch to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Elizabethan Era Essays

The Elizabethan Era Essays The Elizabethan Era Essay The Elizabethan Era Essay The Elizabethan Era is named after the greatest Queens of England, Queen Elizabeth I. The era of the first theatres in England, where great writers like William Shakespeare showed their creations. Shakespeare’s work is still important in the English literature and he is one of the most important writers of all time. Nowadays, people still try to understand every detail of his work, which is hard because there is not that much information about the life of Shakespeare. Luckily there are other ways to understand his work, having knowledge about the time in which Shakespeare lived will give a lot of information about his work. That is why knowledge of the Elizabethan Era is fundamental for understanding the works of Shakespeare. Firstly, to understand the work of a writer it is important to get to know that writer. The most important thing is to know in which time they lived and what upbringing they got. A writer does not simply write a story out of nothin g. A writer gets inspiration, and with that inspiration they get started. Writers are heavily influenced by their surroundings, their upbringing and their religion, so that is were a lot of inspirations comes from. Because of Shakespeare’s upbringing, which was in the Reformation, he wrote about themes like redemption and atonement. Especially in some plays he wrote these themes are important. These themes has to do with thing that were important in the time in which Shakespeare lived. Because of this, having knowledge of the Elizabethan Era is fundamental for understanding the works of Shakespeare. Secondly, to understand Shakespeare people need to understand the language in which he writes. Obviously his work is written in English, but language is a living, breathing entity and over 400 years there have been significant changes in the way we write and speak English. In the Elizabethan Era the English language was different from what it is nowadays. Getting to understand that language is one key to success in understanding Shakespeare. Learning more about the Elizabethan Era will also give you more information about the language what was used in that era. Therefore having knowledge of the Elizabethan Era is fundamental for understanding the works of Shakespeare. In conclusion, it is important to have sufficient knowledge of the Elizabethan Era for understanding the works of Shakespeare. Writers are influenced by their surroundings and so the time in which they live. Another important thing to understanding a writer is to understand the language his work is written, the language is, of course, influenced by the time in which it is written. Therefore when people want to understand the work of Shakespeare, it is important for them to have sufficient knowledge of the Elizabethan Era.

Causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis

Causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis Cuban Missile Crises Introduction Considered to be one of the most serious conflicts between the U.S and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the Cuban missile crises brought the World a clash of democracy V.S communism with a deadly nuclear outcome. Known to the World as the Cuban Missile crises, to the Russians as the Caribbean Crises and to the Cubans and the October Crises it lasted sixteen days in October. The main characters involved were U.S President John F. Kennedy, Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and Cuban President Fidel Castro. The sixteen days in October 1962 was the closest time that a full out nuclear war was about to take place Background America USSR Free election No elections or fixed elections Democratic Autocratic / Dictatorship Capitalist Communist ‘Survival of the fittest’ Everybody helps everybody Richest world power Poor economic base Person al freedom Society controlled by the NKVD (secret police) Freedom of the media Total censorship The Cuban missile crises’ origins began at the end of the World War 2. After the war about to end the United States and the USSR started to disagree on the main ideas of how a post war Europe should look like. The American’s main aim of the war was to spread democracy and to spread their company’s economic opportunities into Europe. This was very different to what the USSR wanted, the USSR suffered a lot during the war, and they lost a lot of people and suffered a lot of economic and social problem directly resulting from the war, because of this the USSR main post war thoughts were to protect themselves from other wars that may happen and to spread communism across the globe.   These differences between the two countries were obviously great and were bound to cause tension and problems. Origins of Russian-American Tension Ideological: The United States and the Soviet Union represented two completely different forms of government. In the United States, the government is chosen by free elections. The people have the right to form political parties so that they can voice their political opinions. They also have the right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press. In the Soviet Union, the government is chosen by the Communist Party. The people do not have the right to form their own political parties; they do not enjoy the right freedom of speech and the freedom of the press. Since these two systems of government are completely different to one another, this is bound to cause friction between the United States and the Soviet Union. Economic: The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. The Soviet Union wanted to close off her itself from international trade. Russia was afraid that trade with the West would open up Russia to western influences which would have ruined the strength of the o ne-party communist regime. These differences led to much bad feeling between the United States and the Soviet Union. Power rivalry: After the Second World War, with the decline of Europe, power was shared between the Soviet Union and the United States. As one superpower wanted to dominate the other, conflicts were to be expected.

Quality Analysis I Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Quality Analysis I - Essay Example Apple is also involved in the marketing of mobile communication and media devices with other peripherals and associated accessories (Lashinsky, 2012). Among the products produced by Apple Inc., the Apple personal computers have been one of the greatest successes that the organization has made in the past. The Apple Smartphones exhibit a number of qualities that put them way ahead of other competing organizations, within the stiff market arena. The qualities of Apple Smartphones that put them ahead in terms of competition from the many smartphone manufacturers include the unique operating software (OS), which has the ability to resist virus attack. Viruses are some of the greatest concerns of many smartphone users today, most especially in reference to data loss, which is one of the greatest problems that majorities of the users face today. Additionally, Apple Smartphones use very unique software that are never used by any other type of computer system, therefore, preventing the problem of software piracy, ideally, one of the greatest currently in the Information Technology industry (Lashinsky, 2012). In conducting a SWOT analysis for Apple Inc., it is clear that the greatest strength contributing to the organization’s success is innovation. Apple Inc. has been able to create unique products, which have brought the market forward, especially in terms of design and competition (Cruikshank, 2006). With products such as the Smartphones and the iPhones, the organization has been able to bring technology to the mainstream, enabling it build a brand name that beats all the rest in the market arena. Despite such great success, Apple Inc. has one great weakness in terms of its pricing. It is substantively clear that the prices of most of Apple’s products are very exploitative, with a majority of critics arguing that the organization only concentrates in gathering immense wealth in cash terms from its customers, without any little concern for theirs economic status

Marketing Report Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Report - Case Study Example Therefore, the recommendations are made considering the major identified attributes for the business success. The methods used to evaluate the marketing strategies include mystery shopping, which is also referred to as the identification of critical incident practically. Therefore, the direct observations are used for the evaluation of marketing strategy to identify the utilization of key marketing elements The report and analysis is based on the assumption that one time live experience is useful for the generalization of marketing strategy. The limitation is the limited time frame to analyze the marketing strategy using only the experience of Singapore based Popeye chicken restaurant, which is very small part of the international food chain. The report analyzes the marketing strategy of Popeye. The Popeye is an American chain of fast food and the chain was founded in the year 1972. Popeye was initially established in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Popeye is famous with the name of Popeye Louisiana. It is often referred to as Popeye’s Chicken & Biscuits. Another name of Popeye is â€Å"Popeye Chicken and Seafood†. After a span of around 19 years Popeye was acquired by US based chicken company named as AFC Enterprises (Smith, 2006). The Popeye has completed its 2000 franchises in all over the world. During the mid of 2014, Popeye claimed that it has re acquired full control of its seasoning. The major factors that affect the operations of the Popeye business include the quality of food, variety of food, prices and serving time. The two main forces that may affect the firm’s ability to serve its customers are the competitive prices and attractive ambience along with good food. In the marketing language these two forces have the implications that low price may reduce the competitive pressure on the company. Secondly, good ambience along with good food may

Implications for Marketing Organizations Essay Example for Free

Implications for Marketing Organizations Essay Among these, the shift in the nature and growth rates of the world population has perhaps drawn much more attention of the business leaders because demographic variables reflect changes in consumer patterns and behaviors (Martins Brooks 2009) which can impact their business practices. This report will examine the main trends in age structure of the global population and their implications to business strategies of marketing organizations throughout the world. The increase in ageing population is an important trend in many parts of the world, especially in developed countries (Madalina 2010), resulting mainly from the decline of fertility and increase in life expectancies (United Nations, 2011). After World War II, there was a sudden rise in the population which was termed as Baby Boom (Tombs Seamons, 2010). They form an important target group for marketers. However, Tombs and Seamons (2010) pointed out that following the baby boom, the birth rate declined significantly in several nations such as Australia and New Zealand and a low fertility rate has existed since the mid 1970s. According to United Nations (2011), the aged population in the developed world is increasing rapidly and the number of old people will probably have outnumbered the young for the first time by 2050. People now prefer smaller families and this has led to a sharp fall in the birth rate. The improvement in living standards has a contributed to an increase in life expectancies. These factors have caused major changes in market patterns as well as in the type of goods being bought. For example, Gumbel (2008) demonstrated that the generation of Japanese women aged in their twenties who drove the growth in luxury fashion groups in most of the 1990s have mostly settled down to start families and buy apartments. As a result, the sales of luxury goods in Japan have fallen sharply. The age brackets which make up different proportions in the demography as a result of the changing age structure, have influenced the targeted markets and marketing strategy of companies (Tombs Seamons 2010). The authors distinguish 6 different age groups within the Australian population, wherein each one has specific growth rates. The first category consisting of children below the age of five accounted for 6. 2% of the population in 2007. It is a promising market for companies who provide childcare services and children-related products. The population in the second group consisting of 10 to 19 year olds had declined at the beginning of the 1990s, but is gradually rising. This bracket is a targeted market for education, garment products, and entertainment. Post-teenagers and young adults aged 20 34 years constitute the grown-up category which was affected by the low fertility rate during the 1970s, causing its reduction through the 1990s. This group with a high disposable income purchase a variety of technologically advanced electronics along with branded garments. The fourth group of early middle aged people consisted of 13% of Australian population in 2007 and is predicted to increase to 23-25% by 2056 (Chandler 2008, cited by Tomb Seamons 2010). The subsequent category is ‘Late middle age’ (Tomb Seamons 2010, p. 161). Both these segments will have more importance for companies in the coming years as its share of the total population will grow gradually and consume a variety of high-priced luxury products. The last group comprising of senior citizens will also have a positive growth rate during the coming years similar to the two previous groups. These aged people are more interested in health care services, travelling and relaxation as opposed to the younger population which is easily attracted by technological commodities providing a positive social experience, creativity, innovation and uniqueness (Cuddeford 2012). A very important methodology behind television advertisements while targeting the middle aged groups is portraying celebrities in middle aged characters in order to please them by creating a sense of familiarity and thus, affinity (Diaz 2012). This is especially effective when several marketing ploys propagate youth culture. This approach is targeted towards expanding this segment which is attractive not only because of its increasing growth rate as the world population is ageing, but also because their exhibition of a loyalty related to service industry is considerably higher compared to the younger age groups (Paul Patterson 2007).

Computer Crime Essay -- Technology

ABSTRACT Billions of dollars in losses have already been discovered. Billions more have gone undetected. Trillions will be stolen, most without detection, by the emerging master criminal of the twenty-first century--the computer crime offender. Worst of all, anyone who is computer literate can become a computer criminal. He or she is everyman, everywoman, or even every child. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION To first understand computer crime one must understand first what crime is. According to Diana Kendall, "crime is a behavior that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail or other sanctions" (Kendall 1999; 161). Yet since computer technology is so new it has really no laws to govern it. A law is formal norms that are enforced, norms being established rules of behavior. Many of the crimes committed on computers often times go unpunished. As stated by David Pitch ford in the London journal Focus when writing on pornography on the Internet, " the only way illegal pornographers can be caught is through chance leads, tip-offs and telephone tracing" (Focus 1995; p10-12). Many of the crimes that are also committed on computers via the Internet are very new also. New subcultures have formed around the Internet for the possibilities it brings. Computer crime despite the many problems it has brought has also brought some needed social controls to the Internet and as stated befo re some laws have been formed to protect many of the institutions that because of computer crime have become targets for criminals. CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL REVIEW Now that we have briefly explained computer crime, let's go into further depth into explaining computer crime from the different sociological perspective theories. Many of those th... ...world starts the work as one to control the Internet and those that abuse its power and seek to take what is not theirs. Yet, the technologies are very new and they're very vulnerable, we in going to be in a messy situation for a while. In my view point hacking and computer crime will be with us for as long as we have the Internet. It is our role to keep the balance between what is a crime and what is done for pure enjoyment. Luckily, the government is making an effort to control the Internet. Yet, true control over the Internet is impossible, because the reasons the Internet was created. This is why families and the institution of education of is needed, parents need to let their children know what is okay to do on the computer and what is not and to educate them on the repercussions of their actions should they choose to become part of the subculture of hackers.

Different Types of Workers’ Compensation Plans

The four types of Workers’ Compensation plans are: Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program, Federal Employees’ Compensation Program, Longshore and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Program, and the Black Lung Benefits Program. Each of these programs helps serve the employees of these specific groups when they are injured during a workplace accident. Each of these programs provide medical care, cash benefits for lost wages, rehabilitation, and other benefits to those who are injured as a result of an on the job injury. The Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program went into effect on July 31, 2001. It provides benefits to those who have developed cancer or other serious illness due to exposure to radioactive materials while working. The Federal Employees’ Compensation Program provides benefits to employees that are employed by the federal government. The Longshore and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Program provides benefits for those employed in the maritime field. The Black Lung Benefits Program provides benefits to those that work in coal mines under the Black Lung Benefits Act. There are also two types of State Workers’ Compensation Plans. Each state has its own Workers’ Compensation plans. Coverage varies from state to state. All the states however, provide two types of Workers’ Compensation benefits. One of the benefits covers the employees’ medical expenses that resulted from an on the job injury. The other benefit compensates the employee for the wages he or she lost during the time he or she was unable to work. They will pay these wages until they are able to return to work. It is necessary to have federal and state compensation plans to make sure the employees are covered. It is against the law to have employees without offering Workers’ Compensation. It is best to have both because each state has different regulations. An employer needs to make sure they are covered 100%.

The Contribution of Processual and Emergent Perspectives to Strategic Change

Change is ubiquitous. Organisational change has become synonymous with managerial effectiveness since the 1980s (Burnes, 1996; Wilson, 1992). However, north American influence over the quest for commitment, efficiency and improved performance, appears to have fallen back upon largely Tayloristic notions of management, with the result that organisational change is widely perceived to be controllable by modern management, with organisations themselves instrumental in their in their hands (Collins, 1997). However, this ‘scientific' approach appears to have diffused with scant regard to contextual variables that may serve to modify and constrain contemporary managerial rhetoric for change (Hatch, 1997). One perspective that attempts to refocus the debate on wider issues has come to be known as the processual or emergent approach to organisational change (Collins, 1997), and it is this perspective that this paper seeks to evaluate You can read also Waves First, the inevitability of change is briefly considered as the time frame selected for organisational analysis tends to dictate the substance of investigation. This leads into a critique of planned change under the umbrella of strategic choice, with its core assumptions based upon managerial hegemony. This approach is then contrasted with the processual and emergent perspectives that seek to widen management appreciation to include factors beyond the organisation and its immediate environments. The implications of the apparent divergence between theory and practice are briefly outlined before concluding that the subjectivist paradigm of the processual/emergent approach is best seen as a modification to theories of strategic choice, which may add to effective managerial practice in the future. This argument is qualified by the need to support such a modification by a fundamental change in modern managerial education. The Inevitability of Change ‘Change' exudes temporality. While it may be a truism that in any field of activity, all periods may be characterised by change and continuity, the time frame selected will tend to highlight change or continuity (Blyton and Turnbull, 1998). For example, a focus upon organisational change during the last two-decades may reveal a period of rapid change. However, a perspective encompassing the last two hundred years may indicate a basic continuity in the capitalist social mode of production (ibid). Consequently, differentiating between whether organisational change should be analysed from the perspective of a strict chronology of ‘clock' or linear time, with its associated notions of relentless progress, planning and implementation, or whether changed is viewed from the perspective of a processual analysis over tracts of time, has given rise to a vigorous debate on how change should be understood as it applies to complex business organisations (Wilson, 1992). Two paradigms dominate the analysis of organisational change. On the one hand, a positivist view holds that change is objectively measurable, and thus controllable, embracing notions of rationality, temporal linearity and sequence – change is an outcome of deliberate action by change agents (Hatch, 1997; Kepner and Tregoe, 1986). On the other hand, a subjectivist view holds that change is dependent upon the temporal context of the wider social system in which it occurs and is thus a social construction – while organisations define and attempt to manage their change processes, outcomes are not necessarily the result of the top-down cascade advocated by the planned approach (Pettigrew, 1985). Consequently, as a point of departure, planned organisational change shall be discussed before moving on to examine the emergent approach as a challenge to the rational model. The Planned Perspective Contemporary US and UK managerial ideology may be identified as an outcome of, and a contributor to, neo-liberalist voluntarism (Dunlop, 1993). This ideology is mobilised through the agency of management to protect capital's interests above all others. Consequently, management and managers come to be considered a social elite through their exercise of ‘god-like' control over a logical and rational process of adaptation, change and ever-improving performance. The organisation is thus instrumental in the hands of management (Collins, 1997; Daft, 1998; Hatch, 1997; Kepner and Tregow, 1986). Generally referred to as ‘strategic choice', the planned approach, according to Wilson (1992:22) is constructed upon the following theories of organisation: 1 Organisational Development (OD) and Behavioural Modification (BM); 2 Planned incrementalism; 3 The ‘enterprise culture', best practice and ‘gurus' as change agents. These perspectives have all in common the role of human agency, whereby, ‘†¦human decisions make an important difference†¦ a voluntarism in which human courage and determination count' (Gouldner 1980, cited in Wilson, 1992:25). OD and BM (closed system) approaches emanate from the field of psychology, positing that organisational change is implemented by management through changing the behaviour of individuals. OD aims to foster consensus and participation on the basis that management attributes resistance to change to poor interpersonal relations (Wilson, 1992). BM is a systematic approach to the conditioning of managerially defined ‘appropriate' behaviour, based upon Skinnerian psychological theories of learning (reward and punishment) and motivation (ibid). Both approaches are based on the assumptions that managers are capable of identifying internal barriers to change, determining appropriate behaviours, and designing and implementing programmes to achieve desired outcomes. Consequently, there is a plethora of ‘frameworks', ‘recipes' and ‘how to' packages aimed at managerial audiences (Collins, 1997) A central feature of many of these packages is Lewin's (1951) ‘force field' framework, which proposes that change is characterised as a state of imbalance between pressures for change and pressures against change. It is suggested that managers are capable of adjusting the equilibrium state of zero-change, by selectively removing or modifying specific forces in the required direction (Senior, 1997). Implicit is the normative nature of planned change: managers should know the various forces as they apply to their own particular situation, and should understand and possess the means to exert influence over them. It follows that, ceteris parebus, without deliberate managerial action, change, at worst is unlikely to occur and, at best, is unlikely to realise desired outcomes without the intervention of chance (Collins, 1997). Planned incrementalism argues that change is constant and evolutionary and should be planned in small steps based on an orderly adjustment to information flowing in from the operating environment (Quinn 1980, cited in Senior, 1997). This approach is related to contingency theory. The argument runs that the most effective way to organise is contingent upon conditions of complexity and change in the environment. Thus, the organisation should achieve congruence with its market environment and managers should support their strategies with appropriate structures and processes to enhance the likelihood of success (ibid). Turning to the final ‘ingredients', Wilson (1992:37) argues that ‘enterprise culture', ‘best practice' and ‘management gurus' are different faces of the same ideology. Enterprise culture denotes best practice and grows from a particular interpretation of management theory. This interpretation shapes the role of external consultants and thus determines who are the gurus; the ideology becomes self-supporting. Thus the ideology of strategic choice is mobilised in support of managerial ideology: to be successful in a free market system (entrepreneurial), firms should be modelled by managers upon best practice (currently, from the US and Japan), should adopt flexible specialisation and decentralised structures, and should seek to create organisational cultures congruent with managers' own. The ‘successful' manager comes to be defined as a ‘change master' (Kanter, 1993; see Peters and Waterman, 1982). The Emergent, Processual Perspective A common critique of the planned perspective is that the ability of management to rationally plan and implement organisational change ignores the influence of wider, more deterministic forces outside the realms of strategic choice (Wilson, 1992). Largely in opposition to this perspective and generally referred to as ‘systemic conflict', the emergent approach, according to Wilson (ibid:22) is constructed upon the following theories of organisation: 1 Contextualism; 2 Population ecology; 3 Life cycles; 4 Power and politics; 5 Social action. While also tending to acknowledge the role of human agency in effecting change, these approaches serve to widen the debate to include the impact of human interaction at micro and macro levels, thus constraining strategic choice (ibid). Contextualism is based upon an open systems (OS) model which views any organisation as being an interdependent component of a much larger whole (Pettigrew, 1985). Serving as a direct intellectual challenge to closed system perspectives, fundamental is the notion that no organisation exists in a vacuum. Emery and Trist (1960, cited in Wilson, 1992) argue that OS reveals the following characteristics: Equifinality – no one best way of achieving the same outcomes; Negative entropy – importing operating environment resources to curtail or reverse natural decay; Steady state – relationship stability between inputs, throughputs, outputs; Cycles and patterns – cash flows, stock-turns and so on. Thus, OS enables the variances between organisations' performances to be explained by external influences, facilitating comparative analysis, the establishment of sectoral norms and the identification of ‘supra-normal' practices (Wilson, 1992). Population ecology (and perhaps institutional theories) is based upon the Darwinian notion of ‘survival of the fittest' (Hatch, 1997). Thus strategic change is aimed at maximising ‘fitness' within the general population of organisations, through the identification of ‘market' niches and strategies of specialisation, differentiation or generalism (Porter, 1980, 1985). Competitive advantage is thus created and sustained through the construction of distinctive and inimitable structures, processes and cultures, eg: erecting high barriers to entry through technological investment, or eliminating threats of product substitution through high R & D investment and thus (desired) innovation (ibid). The life cycle perspective explicitly recognises the temporal nature of organisational change. Though linear in nature (all life cycle theories assume birth, growth, maturity, decline and death as givens), this approach provides insights into the potential internal and external conditions (and constraints) that an organisation is likely to encounter during distinct life cycle phases (Greiner, 1972 cited in Senior, 1997). However, this approach suffers from a similar critique to those levied at models of planned change. ‘Cycles' are not in fact cycles (suggesting reincarnation). Development is linear and progressive and an organisation's location on the ‘cycle' is highly subjective. Perhaps the major contribution of the emergent approach to organisational change, is the highlighting of the role of power and politics in moderating managerial efforts to effect fundamental and sustainable change (Handy, 1986). Essentially, three political models of power reveal that outcomes are incapable of being considered independently of processes and personal stakes. First, overt power is the visible manifestation of localised influence over preferred processes and outcomes (eg: ‘it's the way we've always done things around here'). Second, covert power is less visible and related to the extent of information sharing and participation in change processes afforded by organisational sub-groups (eg: senior management) to others – the phrase ‘inner circle' is a common indicator of covert power relations in operation. Finally, third, contextual power suggests that outcomes are mediated by societal forces and the economic structure of society itself (eg: elites, notions of social justice, and so on) (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Postmodern analysis reveals the influence of discourse, symbol and myth as interchangeable between organisations and societies in the endorsement of preferred solutions. Thus, contextual power may be utilised to shape the wider justification and acceptability for organisational change( eg: ‘restructuring' for labour stripping; ‘reingeering' for work intensification; ‘partnership' for collective labour coercion; ‘TQM' for zero-tolerance and panoptican managerial control). Moreover, the contextual power perspective also reveals the hegemony of accounting ideology in neo-liberal systems (itself positivist, reductionist and inextricably linked to Taylorism). Thus serving to expose the influence of elite groups, notably silent under the strategic choice framework (Wilson, 1992). Finally, social action theories depict organisational culture (OC) as the structure of social action (ibid). The strategic framework choice would hold that OC is a possession of the organisation and is thus capable of manipulation . In contrast, the systemic conflict framework depicts OC is something an organisation is (a contrasting ontological position) and is therefore largely beyond managerial influence (Legge, 1995). Nevertheless, ‘strong' (integrated) notions of OC are eulogised by the so-called gurus (see Kanter, 1993; Peters and Waterman, 1982), despite receiving severe criticism for their weak methodological foundations (See Guest, 1992). The emergent approach appears to be at odds with the strong culture = high performance proposition at the heart of most change programmes; its causality is unclear. Implications As the above discussion illustrates, the management of change appears to hold sway over the analysis of change (Wilson, 1992). This implies that understanding has been exchanged for expediency. Put differently, managing change is both a learnable and teachable skill. In view of the short-termism inherent in the US and UK economies, with their shareholder emphasis on maximum financial returns and minimal financial risk (itself a contradiction with the notion of ‘entrepreneur'), it is hardly surprising that ‘recipes for success' are so eagerly sought after by under pressure managers and eagerly supplied by management gurus with pound-signs in their eyes. Practice appears to be on a divergent path from theory (Collins, 1997). Collins (ibid) attributes this apparent divergence to managerial education, which itself (as must any educative process) be viewed as a perpetuation of ideology. With respect to organisational change, management education serves to promote the aggrandisement of managers as †Canute-like rulers of the waves'. Epitomised by the MBA (Master of Bugger All?) with its roots in north America, such programmes are themselves reductionist and short-term in nature. Thus, students are precluded by time constraints from exposure to the theoretical foundations of change and, consequently, may be discouraged from challenging received wisdom. This is not to assert that ‘hands on' skills are unimportant, rather to expose that they lose potency in the absence of the appreciation of the wider context which MBA ‘babble', among a wider range of programmes, serves to suffuse. Conclusion – a rejection of Positivism? The investigation of organisational change has not escape the inexorable north American ‘shift' towards hypothetico-deductive perspectives of economics and psychology, with their positivist paradigms focused upon atomisation akin to the natural sciences (Cappelli, 1995). From a temporal perspective, while organisational change is viewed as inevitable in much the same way as in nature, the time frame selected for analysis tends to dictate the scope and degree of change to be investigated. Short-termism, it appears, is a form of temporal reductionism in the search for objective truth, that is a key factor behind the notion that managers can be trained to manage change through sets of skills that imply mastery over the ‘natural' world and therefore, time itself. In this view, planned models of change, rooted in classical theories of management, may be accused of being an ideological construct of assumed legitimacy and authenticity. On the other hand, a subjectivist systemic tension approach, rejects reductionist ‘tool kits' and lays claim to the inclusion of contextual variables at work throughout an organisation, its operating environment and beyond. In this view, while change is clearly not beyond managerial influence, its management is reliant upon wider understanding of the interplay of these variables, of which power relations may be prominent, in order to be able to predict the likely outcomes of managerial actions. However, for something to exist it must be capable of theoretical explanation. That practitioners have opted for voluntarist models of strategic change is not surprising given the elitist ideology of modern management: to control is to manage; short-termism equates to reduced risk and increased control; the institutions of Western corporate governance and finance thus have their goals met by such an approach. Yet, this is to obfuscate the quintessential qualities of the processual, emergent contribution to organisational change. While not refuting planned change, it perhaps serves to modify it – for any change to be understood, explained and sustained, the duality of voluntarism and determinism must be acknowledged and incorporated into the managerial knowledge base. The emergent approach exposes the potential folly of the extremes of positivism as applied to organisations as social entities, thus throwing open the debate to multi-disciplinary perspectives and enriching the field or organisational change. To be of value, such enrichment must be reflected in managerial education itself.

History Of The American Drug War Essays - Drug Control Law

History Of The American Drug War Essays - Drug Control Law History of the American Drug War The first act of America's anti-drug laws was in 1875. It outlawed the smoking of opium in opium dens. This was a San Francisco ordinance. The basis on passing this law was that Chinese men had a way of luring white women to their dens and causing their "ruin", which was the association with Chinese men. Later, other Federal laws such as trafficking in opium was illegal for anyone of Chinese origin. The opium laws were directed at the smoking of opium. The law didn't effect importation of the drug because opium was a common medical drug. This law was specifically targeted at the Chinese, for the smoking of opium was a Chinese custom. Cocaine was outlawed for fears that black men would go on a sexual rampage and rape white women. In the early 1900's, newspapers referred to them as "Negro Cocaine Fiends" or "Cocainized Niggers". There is little evidence that this actually happened. The Harrison Act had started as a licensing law which required sellers to obtain a license if they were going to handle opiates or cocaine. The law contains a provision that nothing in the law would prohibit doctors from prescribing these drugs in the legitimate practice of medicine. The people who wrote the Harrison Act and Marijuana Tax Act in 1937, agreed that a prohibition on what people could put into their bodies was an unconstitutional infringement on personal liberties. Marijuana was outlawed in 1937. The reason for it being outlawed was that the plant had a violent effect on the degenerate races. The American Medical Association testified that they were opposed to the law. The law would never have passed without the endorsement from the AMA, but when the supporters of the law were asked about the AMA's view on the floor of congress, they had stated that the AMA was all for it. When the law had passed, the AMA protested, but the law was never repealed. It is difficult to determine how many people in the US use drugs. The Federal Government's Household Survey on Drug Abuse, is the most common set of statistics on the use of drugs. According to the latest surveys, conducted by the DEA, there are about 12.7 million people who have used an illegal drug in the past month, and about 30 - 40 million people who have used an illegal drug in the past year. Among the 12.7 people who have used an illegal drug in the past month, about 10 million are casual drug users and about 2.7 million are drug addicts. The figures produced by the Household Survey on Drug Abuse are obtained over the phone. Therefore, there was a problem reaching those without phones, those who didn't answer their phones, and those who answered the question honestly. Other surveys put the figures at least twice as high. Currently, there are about 1.5 million people in state and Federal prisons and jails throughout the US At least 24 states are under Federal court orders to relieve prison overcrowding. Prison population had been relatively stable from about 1926 to about 1970. From that point, Nixon's war against drugs, then the Reagan and Bush war against drugs, caused a dramatic increase in the number of prisoners. The estimated 30 - 40 million people who have used an illegal drug in the past year, would fill a prison holding the populations of California, Arizona and New Mexico altogether. The cost of holding a single one of these persons would be about $450,000. The cost for the arrest and the conviction is about $150,000. The cost for an additional bed would be anywhere from $50,000 to $150,000, depending upon the jurisdiction. It costs about $30,000 per year to house a prisoner, with an average sentence of five years, adding up to be $150,000. The estimated $450,000 (out of taxpayers money), can provide treatment or education for about 200 people. Out of the percentage of people in prison, 59.6% are in prison for a drug offenses. The war on drugs could be won if we were successful in at least one of three areas. If we could stop drug production in other countries, if we could stop drugs

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The Little, Brown Compact Handbook with APA - Essay Example This is beneficial to the writer in that it allows them to include commonly known information into a paper without having to identify the proof for any, and all, facts that are included in that paper. The serial comma is a comma that is used when three or more items are listed, and is located at the end of the series of commas (Becker, 2011). This is helpful for the writer as it can be used to clarify potentially confusing lists of names. Furthermore, it allows the writer to include longer lists of information without creating ambiguity in their writing style. Finally, the APA has released a new way to identify online sources which is called a Digital Object Identifier or DOI (Lewis, 2008). This DOI allows writers to have continued access to a file once it has been found as this number is permanently attached to this article by an approved agency. This process is helpful in that is negates the need for a URL and retrieval date when citing online

Make a claim on Hamlet play character Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Make a claim on Hamlet play character - Essay Example get to the root cause and after the revelation provided by his father’s ghost is involved in scrutinizing the moral and immoral aftereffects of his revenging action towards Claudius. When Hamlet faces the death of his father, he was too much disturbed as he intensely loved his father and his loss became a sort of suffering for him but this suffering was made manifold when his mother soon after his father’s death married his uncle, Claudius. In his first soliloquy, Hamlet showed his disgust with life and stated that we are here to die and if suicide would not be prohibited in religion, he would have committed it. He said, According to Hamlet, our body is not immortal as we have to die one day and he would have preferred to commit suicide and hug death if it was not made prohibited by religion. He considers himself chained and helpless. For Hamlet, the world appeared as useless and as a young man, he lost interest in life that was not only possible that he faced his father’s death, there was much more on his side that he felt intensely due to which, he said, For him, everything of the world lost value and there was no more attraction left for him in the world. Hamlet saw no profit in being alive and to live in this world and the reason for all this was his mother’s hurried marriage with Claudius. He lost belief in any woman on this earth because as per his perceptions, if a mother is not trustworthy, then who else can be as he said, Hamlet regarded his mother’s hasty marriage as incest because for him, she must have an extramarital affair with Claudius when his father was alive as such a marriage can only take place when both the members are pre-committed with one another. According to Hamlet, the tears that his mother shed on the death of his father were false and untrue as she soon washed her eyes and become betrothed to Claudius. Her marriage was there within a month after her husband’s death and as per Hamlet’s statement, her action was faulty